Lou Gehrig’s Disease Definition

Lou Gehrig’s disease, also known as Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is a motor neuron disease resulting due to upper and lower motor neuron degeneration, which are located in the ventral horn of spinal cord and cortical neurons, which provide their efferent input. This disease got its name from the New York Yankees baseball player, being diagnosed as Lou Gehrig’s disease in the year 1939.

The synonym Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is derived from the Greek language (A means- no or absent, myo- muscle, trophic- nourishment, lateral- areas of spinal cord, where nerve cells signaling and controlling the muscle are located, sclerosis- scarring). Thus, when the muscle does not have nourishment, it wastes or atrophies. Since, only the motor neurons are affected, sensory system and the eye and bladder muscles are spared.

Lou Gehrig’s Disease Epidemiology

Lou Gehrig’s disease is one among the most common neuromuscular disease, and people of every race and ethnic background are affected. Two in 1,00,000 individuals suffer from Lou Gehrig’s disease each year. Men are affected than the women. The age group most commonly affected is 40-60 years. Heredity cause contributes to about 5-10 %, and is called as familiar Lou Gehrig’s disease; whereas, 90% of the cases are sporadic. In families with Lou Gehrig’s disease, 50% of the total offspring suffer from this disease.

Lou Gehrig’s Disease Symptoms

• Muscle weakness of arms and legs
• Abnormal fatigue in the arms and legs
• Foot drop
• Difficulty in walking (clumsy walk)
• Difficulty in activities of daily living
• Muscle cramps and twitches in arm, shoulders and tongue
• Tripping and dropping things
• Dysphagia (swallowing difficulty) – Choking easily, Drooling and Gagging
• Head drop due to weakness of the neck muscles
• Fasciculation (involuntary muscle contractions)
• Dysarthria (speech difficulty/slurring)
• Dyspnea (breathing difficulty)
• Voice hoarseness
• Weight loss
• Involuntary laughter and crying

Lou Gehrig’s Disease  Causes

Genetic mutation

This result in inherited Lou Gehrig’s disease

Atrophy and death of neurons

Hence, they do not send message to the muscles, resulting in twitching, weakening and an inability to move the arms, legs, and body.

Chemical imbalance

Increase in the glutamate level, which is a chemical messenger in the brain, acts as toxic to certain nerve cells.

Protein mishandling

Accumulation of abnormal forms of proteins within the nerve cells or neurons causes nerve cell necrosis.

Disorganized immune response

Attacking body’s own normal cells may trigger Lou Gehrig’s disease.

Lou Gehrig’s Disease Risk factors

• Heredity
• Age (40-60 yrs)
• Males are more susceptible (both genders are equally affected after 70 years)
• Environmental factors:

1. Smoking – It increases the risk to about twice than non-smokers
2. Lead exposure – Exposure to lead in the workplace may be associated with the development of Lou Gehrig’s disease
3. Military service – Exposure to certain chemicals, metals, viral infections, traumatic injuries and intense exertion may be the causative factors triggering the disease.

Lou Gehrig’s Disease – Pathophysiology

Lou Gehrig’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord. Since, the motor neurons reach from the brain to the spinal cord and from there, to the muscles of the body, the progressive motor neuron degeneration occurring in Lou Gehrig’s disease leads to death. The astrocytic gliosis replaces the lost neurons. The disappearance of cortical motor cells leads to retrograde axonal loss and gliosis in the pyramidal or corticospinal tract. The so formed gliosis results in bilateral white matter changes in the brain that is visible with a MRI.

As a result, the spinal cord atrophies, thereby losing the large myelinated fibers in the motor nerves. The affected muscles atrophy and the frontal or temporal cortical neurons are lost, as in frontotemporal dementia. Hence, when motor neurons die, brain’s ability in initiating and controlling the movement of muscle is completely lost.

Thus, when the voluntary muscle action is progressively affected, in the later stage, the patient may be totally paralyzed. As the motor neurons keep on degenerating, they lose their capability to send impulses to the muscles, which normally causes the muscle movement.

Lou Gehrig’s Disease – Diagnosis

Even though no definitive diagnostic biomarker or diagnostic tests exists for Lou Gehrig’s disease, depending on the clinical features, the following tests are performed to rule out other causes.

1. El Escorial criteria

These are standardized widely accepted criteria considered for the diagnosis of Lou Gehrig’s disease for clinical practice, therapeutic trials and other research purposes. It was established in 1994. To be diagnosed as Lou Gehrig’s disease,

It requires the presence of:-

LMN signs by clinical, electrophysiological or neuropathological examination
UMN signs by clinical examination
Progression of disease within a region and other regions by clinical examination or via medical history

It requires the absence of:-

Electrophysiological and pathological evidence of other diseases that may explain the UMN and LMN signs.
Neuroimaging evidence of other disease processes that may explain the observed clinical and electrophysiological signs

2. Genetic testing

To diagnose familial Lou Gehrig’s disease

3. Electromyography

Examines the nerve currents to see which nerve is not functioning

Nerve conduction velocity studies

Nerve and muscle biopsies

Cervical spine CT or MRI

To rule out any cervical disease mimicking the Lou Gehrig’s symptoms (to evaluate the existence of any structural, infective or spinal fluid cause)

Blood and urine test

To detect thyroid and parathyroid hormone levels to rule out thyroid diseases and urine test to detect the presence of heavy metals

Lumbar puncture (spinal tap):

Here, the physician inserts a needle into the lower back for withdrawing a sample of spinal fluid for examining the cerebrospinal fluid.

Differential diagnosis

• Brainstem Gliomas
• Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyradiculoneuropathy
• Central Cord Syndrome
• Dermatomyositis/Polymyositis
• Lyme Disease
• Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome (Myasthenia Gravis)
• Posttraumatic Syringomyelia
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Spinal Muscular Atrophy
• Primary Lateral Sclerosis
• Sarcoidosis and Neuropathy

Lou Gehrig’s Disease Prognosis

Better prognosis is achievable with:-

• Age at the time of onset maintains a strongest relationship to Lou Gehrig’s disease. Research has proven that 35-40 years of me of age at the time of onset had better 5 year survival rates compared to older individuals. Individuals with limb onset disease ALS has better prognosis than bulbar onset.
• Less severe involvement at the time of onset
• Longer interval between onset and diagnosis
• No dyspnea at the time of onset

Lou Gehrig’s Disease Complications

• Aspiration
• Loss of self-care ability
• Pneumonia
• Lung failure
• Pressure sores
• Weight loss

Lou Gehrig’s Disease Treatment

Even though, there is no cure for Lou Gehrig’s disease, the treatment modalities cannot reverse or stop the disease condition; instead, it prolongs the life span. It ultimate treatment goal is to control the symptoms.

Medical management

Glutamate antagonist

Riluzole is a benzothiazole agent gets absorbed with 60 % average oral bioavailability and 12 hours of mean elimination half-life. With multiple dose administration, steady state is supposed to reach in 5 days’ time. As a result, few minor and six major metabolites are being produced after metabolism takes place in the liver.

Even though, Riluzole’s exact mechanism is not known, it counteracts with the glutaminergic (excitatory amino acid) pathways. Hence, this drug prolongs the median tracheostomy-free survival rate by 2-3 months, if the patient is less than 75 years.

Skeletal muscle relaxants

Muscle relaxants decrease muscle spasm and spasticity in patients having limb weakness.

• Baclofen (Lioresal, Gablofen) – After getting metabolized in the liver, baclofen is primarily excreted in urine.
• Tizanidine (Zanaflex) – It is a centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant that metabolizes in the liver and excretes in urine and feces. It is used to reduce the spasticity in the limbs.

Mucolytics

Mucolytics like guaifenesin is used for treatment of making the thickened accumulated secretions thin. It is recommended to make the room air adequately humid and hydrated. In certain cases, mechanical suction may be necessary.

Antidepressants

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors like citalopram 10-40 mg/d are used in the treatment of depression.

Sedatives/anxiolytic

Lorazepam 0.5-1.0 mg is the commonly used drug that acts as sedative/hypnotic, anxiolytic, amnesic, muscle relaxanant and antiemetic; but, should be used with extreme caution as it may cause respiratory depression.

Analgesics

Tramadol, ketorolac, morphine (immediate or extended release) or fentanyl patch may be utilized. A chance of respiratory depression is noted with opiates.

Anticholinergic agents

Oral atropine or amitriptyline, glycopyrrolate and hyoscine may control the swallowing difficulty that causes choking and drooling as well. Side effects include glaucoma exacerbation and confusion.

Botulinum toxin

It is used for paralyzing the parotid glands that influences the saliva secretion to increase, resulting in drooling.

Antiarrhythmic agent

A combination of quinidine (Nuedexta) dextromethorphan has proven to be efficient in reducing the involuntary laughing and crying, which is the pseudobulbar affect.

Respiratory Symptoms

Respiratory muscle weakness caused decrement in ventilation and increases the risk of dypnea, sleep apnea and aspiration. Noninvasive ventilatory support improves the quality of life and life expectancy of a patient during the early ventilatory failure. This is the most effective treatment to prolong the life span compared to others. Polysomnography identifies any disruption in the sleep contiguity resulting due to ventilatory failure, which is caused by nosturnal oxygen desaturation, apneas and hypopneas.

On the contrary, invasive ventilatory support that requires tracheostomy is chosen in patients having respiratory failure, but neurologically intact. Another suitable candidate is those whose secretions are unmanageable, and needs to be kept alive for a long term, which is otherwise, not possible in noninvasive ventilatory support.

Bulbar Weakness

Being one among the distressing features of Lou Gehrig’s disease, it causes weakness of pharynx, tongue and facial muscles, and loss of salivary control as well. Consequently, the patient may have swallowing difficulty, and may start to choke and drool. Hence, the excess saliva should be controlled. Anticholinergic agents may decrease these symptoms; whereas, parotid glands may be paralyzed using botulinum toxin.

Psychological Symptoms

Psychological symptoms like depression and suicidal thoughts emerge due to decline in muscle strength, along with at least five other symptoms like loss of interest, fatigue, insomnia, weight loss, diminished concentration, etc., for a period of 2 weeks. Beck Depression Inventory is the screening tool used for assessing the depression level. Psychopharmacology, Counseling, and social support may prove to reduce major depression in 80% to 90% of patients.

Dietary Considerations in swallowing difficulty

As the disease progresses, appetite declines, and the swallowing may become difficult. In compensation to this loss, a nutritionist, dietician and speech therapist should be consulted. It is recommended to take dietary supplements to get adequate calorie intake. Hence, in patients with low calorie intake and swallowing difficulty, feeding gastrostomy is placed. If PEG or percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy needs to be placed, gastroenterologist should be consulted.

Activity Restriction

Even though, initially, no activity restriction is needed, take should be taken not to overexert to the fatigue or pain threshold. Regular mild exercises can be performed, if the condition permits; endurance exercises should be avoided, as it can increase the level of fatigue. The primary goals of being active are to prevent painful contractures, maintain normal joint range of motion and maintain the strength and tone of the muscles not or minimally affected. Assistive devices should be used to prevent the risk of falling.

Physical therapy Management

• Active or passive range of motion exercises
• Chest physical therapy
• Mobility and transfer
• Two hour turning regime to prevent pressure sores
• Assistive devices

Lou Gehrig’s Disease – Prevention

Genetic counseling is recommended if a significant family history of Lou Gehrig’s disease is present to minimize the risk of gene transmission to the next generation.

Avoidance of smoking, which is a risk factor for this disease.

Even though the treatment techniques mentioned above are standardized, it is still recommended to consult your physician prior to adopting any self-treatments.

References

Physical rehabilitation, 5th Ed, Susan Sullivan & Thomas Schmitz

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis

http://www.alsa.org/about-als/what-is-als.html

http://www.webmd.com/brain/news/20110822/common-cause-of-lou-gehrigs-disease-found

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis/DS00359

http://www.healthscout.com/ency/68/53/main.html

http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/amyotrophic-lateral-sclerosis/overview.html

http://www.nursingcenter.com/prodev/ce_article.asp?tid=756417

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1170097-overview

http://www.news-medical.net/?tag=/lou+gehrig%27s+disease

Leukocytosis Definition

Leukocytosis is defined as a state in which there is increased leukocytes (WBC’s – White Blood Cells) count in the blood above the normal range with respect to age and sex. Leukocytes are also known by the name white blood cells or WBCs. These leukocytes are vital part of the immune system, enabling the individuals to fight infections. Leukocytes are being produced in the bone marrow, and after its production, it circulates in the blood for some time and leaves the blood for the functions to be carried out.

Leukocytosis Counts

Leukocyte count may increase when the bone marrow production increases or when the exit of WBCs from the blood is decreased. In adults, the normal leukocyte count is 11.0 x109/L leukocytes. Leukocytosis occurs when the count becomes 15,000-20,000 per microliter. Leukocytosis is a response to noxious stimulus that is part of an inflammatory reaction; it is usually accompanied by certain cytologic abnormalities like Dohle bodies or toxic granulation. Leukocyte count greater than 25 to 30 x 109/L is called as leukemoid reaction, exhibited by a healthy bone marrow when subjected to extreme trauma, stress and infection.

Leukocytosis Types

1. Neutrophilia
2. Monocytosis
3. Basophilia
4. Eosinophilia
5. Lymphocytosis

Leukocytosis Classification

Leukocytosis is subcategorized on the basis of the type of WBC that increases.

1. Neutrophilia (neutrophil count is elevated)

According to the neutrophilia mechanism:-

• Increased production
• Demargination (decreased out passage from the vascular space)
• Increased mobilization from the bone marrow storage pool
• Decreased margination into the tissues

2. Monocytosis: monocyte count is elevated
3. Basophilia: basophil count is elevated
4. Eosinophilia: eosinophil count is elevated
5. Lymphocytosis: lymphocyte count is elevated

Leukocytosis With Left Shift

When the immature leukocytes proportion is greater than the mature leukocytes, it leads to leukocytosis. Various pathological tests conducted will diagnose leukocytosis with left shift. Whenever there is an increase in the leukocyte count, it always accompanies left shift leukocytosis. Leukocytes with left shift is not a disease; instead, it is an indication of a leukemoid reaction.

A left shift leukocytosis indicates that the immature leukocytes are greater than mature neutrophils. This may be due to C3a and GCSF inflammation in the precursor cells of bone marrow of a patient because of proliferation and abnormal increase in the monocyte and granulocyte precursors. It can be diagnosed by a complete blood count. A complete blood count will denote leukocytosis with left shift.

Leukocytosis Pathophysiology

Leukocytosis may be a response to several inflammations, infections or physiological processes like exercise or stress. This reaction is mediated by the released molecules in response to stimulations, including growth or survival factors like c-kit ligand, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. Other stimulations include cytokines like interleukin-1, interleukin-3, interleukin-6, interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor; and adhesion molecules like CD11b/CD18.

These stimulatory events control the following mechanisms for determining the peripheral leukocyte count:-

• Precursor cells and storage pool of lymphoid and myeloid cells
• The rate at which cells release from the bone marrow’s storage pool
• The rate of marginating cells passing out from the blood vessels to the tissues
• Rate of cell loss in the tissues

Leukocytosis Symptoms

The symptoms are a result of the disease that led to leukocytosis.

• Fever
• Pain or tingling sensation in the arms, legs, or abdomen
• Bleeding or bruising.
• Feeling dizzy, sweaty or faint
• Feeling weak, sick or tired.
• Nausea
• Trouble thinking or seeing.
• Trouble breathing.
• Poor appetite and unusual weight loss
• Painful erection in males

Leukocytosis Causes

Infection

It can be caused by virus, bacteria or parasite

Eg: – Chicken pox, pneumonia, tuberculosis, bladder infections and sinusitis

Inflammation

It can be due to pain, swelling and redness in joints

Eg: – Arthritis

Diseases

Like inflammatory bowel disease

Tissue damage

It can be caused in case the body tissues get damaged

Eg: – Burns, heart disease and cancer

Immune reactions

Here, the immune system reacts strongly

Eg: – Asthma or allergies

Bone marrow problems

Here, bone marrow makes many WBCs than needed, but does not function like normal WBCs.

Eg: – Leukemia or blood cancer, myelofibrosis, polycythemia vera, thrombocytopenia

Medications

Certain medicines used for treating mental health disorder, inflammation, breathing problems and cancer cause leukocytosis.

Eg: – corticosteroids, epinephrine (beta agonist) and lithium (psychotic drug)

Stress

Both emotional and physical (exercise)

Smoking

Surgeries

Like splenectomy

Hemolytic anemia

Pregnancy

Eg: – Thyrotoxicosis, Urinary tract infection, trauma, Worm infestation, Malignancy, Medication

Leukocytosis Diagnosis

• Complete blood count (CBC)
• Peripheral blood smear (PBS)
• PBS shows the form and shape of WBCs
• PBS shows the elevated WBC type
• Bone marrow biopsy
• History taking – To figure out the cause for leukocytosis

Leukocytosis Treatment

1. Intravenous fluids

To provide extra fluid to the blood vessels

2. Medication

• Antibiotics

This is given to prevent or treat the infection causing leukocytosis.

• Steroids

This is given for decreasing inflammation, which is causing leukocytosis.

• Antacids

This is mainly given for decreasing the amount of acid present in the urine during treatment for leukocytosis.

• Anti-uric acid

This is given for decreasing the uric acid amount in the body and to prevent further cell damage.

3. Leukocytoreduction

This procedure decreases the WBCs in blood, and stops the leukostasis formed when WBCs clump together in blood.

a. Leukapheresis

Through IV, blood is taken and the WBCs are removed from blood through a machine. The blood without white blood cells is injected back to the body. It can also be donated to another patient.

b. Chemotherapy

It is used for treating cancers like leukemia by killing the cancerous cells. It is used to decrease the amount of WBCs, as during chemotherapy healthy WBCs also get destroyed with the cancerous cells. It can also be used for shrinking the cancerous lymph nodes; once the tumor becomes smaller, surgery may be performed. Frequent blood tests may be needed to keep a track on the WBC count.

4. Bone marrow transplant (BMT)

Here, the healthy bone marrow replaces the diseased bone marrow. The bone marrow may be taken from a donor or the patient’s body (if the cancer is not in an active state). Bone marrow transplant can cure the illness, but may cause serious health problems, and also demands a long hospital stay.

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukocytosis

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/956278-overview

http://www.drugs.com/cg/leukocytosis.html

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/956278-overview#a0104

http://www.bloodindex.org/leukocytosis.php

Leukopenia Definition

Leukopenia or leucopenia or leukocytopenia is a decrement in the white blood cells (WBC) or leukocytes present in the blood that places individuals at greater infection risks. Leukopenia derived its name from Greek words meaning deficiency and white. A subtype of leukopenia called as neutropenia is referred to decline in the number of neutrophil granulocytes that are the most abundant WBCs. Neutrophil being the most crucial infection risk indicator, neutropenia and leukopenia might be used interchangeably.

Usually, less than 3,500 WBC/mL of blood is regarded as a low WBC count. Low WBC count threshold in children varies according to the age and gender. Leukopenia is believed to weaken the immune system of the body, thereby putting the individuals at high infection risks.

Leukopenia Types

Leukocyte or WBCs are found in lymphatic system or blood, and they are the immune-system cells. They are derived from the bone marrow’s multi-potent cell called as the hematopoietic stem cell. These WBC protect the body from infections, foreign particles and diseases.

1. Neutrophils: defend the body against fungal or bacterial infections.
2. Basophils: respond to allergies by releasing histamine that causes inflammation.
3. Eosinophils: deal with parasitic infections.
4. Monocytes: they function similar to neutrophils, and present pathogen pieces to T cells that can very well identify these pathogens to kill them.
5. Lymphocyte: make antibodies; kill cells that are cancer infected or viral; co-ordinate the immune response.

Leukopenia Symptoms

• Anemia
• Thrombocytopenia: Low platelets due to bone marrow damage that decreases WBCs
• Pneumonia: Inflammation of lungs due to bacteria or virus
• Stomatitis: Inflammation of mucous lining of gums, cheeks, lips, tongue, etc.
• Liver abscesses: Bacterial infection of the liver
• Metrorrhagia: Infective bleeding from the uterus
• Menorrhagia: Prolonged and heavy menstruation
• Neurasthenia: Characterized by fatigue, fever, headache, irritability and hot flashes
• Oral ulcer and various infections
• Strong desire to consume hot drinks

Leukopenia Causes

Cold/flu

• Low WBC count is seen

Leukemia

• Bone marrow gets damaged, and normal marrow cells are replaced with immature WBC

HIV and AIDS

• These immune deficient diseases disrupt the function of bone marrow thereby decreasing WBC production.

Chemo therapy and radiation therapy

• Kills cancerous cells along with healthy blood cells

Aplastic anemia

• Failure to produce WBC and RBC, and also poor production of platelets

Myelofibrosis

• Fibrous tissue replaces the bone marrow

Hodgkin’s lymphoma

• Damage the bone marrow

Rheumatoid arthritis
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

• This chronic anti-immunity connective disorder damages tissues, and causes infection

Congenital disorders

• Kostmann’s syndrome: it has low neutrophil production
• Myelokathexis: neutrophils fail to enter the blood stream

Diseases like typhoid, rickettsial infections, tuberculosis, malaria and dengue
Spleen enlargement

• Destruction of blood cells by the spleen

Folate deficiency
Sepsis and psittacosis
Medications like diuretics and antibiotics, antipsychotics and antidepressants

• Damage bone marrow

Deficiency of minerals like zinc and copper

Leukopenia Diagnosis

1. Leukopenia can be diagnosed with a complete blood count.

• This test determines the amount of WBC in the blood stream; depending on the WBC count, the seriousness of the problem is determined.

2. Flow cytometry (to rule out leukemia)

• In this technique, cells and chromosomes are counted and examined by suspending them in a fluid stream, and passing through an electronic detection apparatus.

3. A bone marrow biopsy (if not diagnosed by CBC)

Leukopenia Precautions

• This is done mainly to minimize the infection risks.
• Frequent hand washes with plenty of water and soap.
• Wear mask and gloves wherever possible.
• Usage of body lotion after every wash (dry skin is more susceptible to infections).
• Avoid large crowds (this may contain infected people).
• Stay away from sharp objects that can cause injury.
• In case of trauma or wounds, consult a medical practitioner immediately.
• Nutritious meal consisting of essential minerals and vitamins, especially, iron, zinc and copper to improve the WBC count.

Leukopenia Treatment

A reduced leukocyte count is not life-threatening. However, inability to resist infections due to low immunity may lead to serious symptoms and even death. Hence, having a thorough knowledge about the symptoms of leukopenia and its treatment will assist in minimizing the resultant complications of leukopenia.

To activate the bone marrow

• Antibiotics: for bacterial infection and sepsis
• Dietary supplements: for nutrient deficiency
• Cytokine therapy

The growth factors contain cytokines that stimulate the bone marrow for producing more WBCs.

Eg: Filgrastim and pegfilgrastim

Chemotherapy

It is contraindicated or delayed, if the leukopenia is due to previous chemotherapy

Ex vivo expansion

It is still in a clinical trial process. This process grows neutrophils in the laboratory to infuse it into patients who are on chemotherapy, for preventing neutropenia

Cocktail of drugs

In severe conditions

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukopenia

http://www.seattlecca.org/diseases/leukopenia.cfm

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/low-white-blood-cell-count/MY00162

http://www.news-medical.net/health/Leukopenia-What-is-Leukopenia.aspx

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/symptoms-and-treatment-of-leukopenia.html

http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/leukopenia-symptoms-causes-treatment.html

http://leukopeniadisease.com/